英语语言学讲解

　《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明 : 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。

　《语言学概论》研究始于 20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构， 对语言和语言交际作出客观、 科学描述。现已形成了语音学、 音系学、 形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会 学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。

　对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完 全必要和有益的。

　本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第 6 学期和第 7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其 余章节为选修。

　二、教学目的及要求 : 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这 一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则， 从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识， 并具备一定 的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。

　本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授 主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论， 在理解消化的基础上记忆。

　本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范 例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论， 以达到 理论和实践相结合的目的。

　三、教学重点与难点 : 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词 汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。

　本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的 理论观点及其局限性。

　四、与其它课程的关系 : 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和 语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。

　五、学时与学分 : 学时 ：

　72 学时 学分 ：

　4 学分 六、教学内容：

　第一章 绪论 本章主要教学内容 : 1 ． 语言学习的意义 2 ． 语言的定义。

　3 ． 语言的定义特征 4 ． 语言的起源。

　5 ． 语言的功能。

　6 ． 语言学的定义。

　7 ． 语言学的核心内容。

　8 ． 宏观语言学的定义及分支。

　9 ． 语言学研究中的重要概念区分。

　本章教学目的和要求 : 本章是全书的绪论。

　学习的目的是认识语言学的性质， 以及人类语言 的本质和特点。要求学生认知、理解语言学的的研究对象，语言学的 各个分支，明晰语言学研究中几对基本概念的区别。

　本章教学重点及难点 : 1. 语言定义和区别性特征。

　2. 语言的功能。

　3. 几对重要概念的区分。

　4. 语言的区别性特征。

　5. 几对重要概念的区分。

　第二章 语言声音 本章主要教学内容 : 1 ． 发声与感知。

　2 ． HP 发音器官。

　3 ． 音标。

　4 ． 元音及辅音。

　5 ． 宽式音标窄 式音标 6 ． 音位理论。

　7 ． 音韵的过程。

　8 ． 区别性特征。

　9 ． 音节和重读的概念及功能作用。

　本章主要教学目的及要求 : 本章的中心是语音，要求对各种发音器官有所了解。对英语的元 音、辅音的描述， 分清宽式音标和窄式音标，以及音韵学的一些基本 概念和基本规律。

　． 本章教学重点及难点 : 本章的教学重点是语音学的概念及分类，发音器官，元音及辅音 的定义和分类方法，宽式音标和窄式音标，音位理论， 区别性特征， 重读的概念及功能。

　第三章 词 汇 ． 本章主要教学内容 : 1 ． 单词的概念。

　2 ． 构词法。

　1) 词素和形态学。

　2) 词素类型。

　3) 曲折变化和单词构成。

　4) 音韵学和形态学的对照。

　3 ． 词汇变迁。

　． 本章教学目的及要求 : 本章要求了解语素这个概念； 掌握英语常见的构词法； 了解词汇的历 史变迁。

　本章教学重点及难点 :

　1 ． 词素的概念和词素的类型、曲折变化、词汇的变迁。

　2 ． 词素的概念、 词素变体、词语的三层含义和音韵学与形态学的对照 第四章 句法学 本章主要教学内容 : 1 ． 传统语法 包括数、格等语法范畴。

　2 ． 结构主义语法。

　3 ． 生成语法 （ 可结合附录中有关生成语法的内容）。

　4 ． 功能语法。

　本章教学目的及要求 : 本章从传统语法、结构主义语法、生成语法和功能主义语法四个 角度阐述了句法学的主要内容。

　要求学生了解这四种方法的具体内容 以及一些重要的概念， 并深刻认识到语言的语法体系是一套高度抽象 自律性规则系统、句子的线性与层次性、 深层结构与表层结构等关系。

　本章教学重点及难点 : 传统语法中的数、格、性时态和语态、结构语法中的直接成分分 析法和向心结构、离心结构、生成语法中的深层结构和表层结构。

　第五章 意 义 本章主要教学内容 : 1 ． 意义的意义。

　2 ． 所指理论。

　3 ． 意义关系。

　 4 ． 成分分析。

　5 ． 句子意义。

　本章教学目的及要求 : 本章对意义进行研究。要求学生对几种主要的对意义研究的途径 有所了解。

　明析词汇与词汇之间和句子与句子之间的关系， 了解近代 语言学中对词义研究的重要方法。

　本章教学重点及难点 : 本章的教学重点是：所指理论、意义关系和成分分析。

　本章的教学难点是：

　所指理论和成分分析。

　句子意义这一部分内容可 用于补充阅读材料。

　第七章 语言、文化、社会 本章主要教学内容 : 1. 语言与文化的关系。

　1) 语言和文化如何关联。

　2) 萨皮尔 - 沃夫假说。

　3) 个案研究。

　4) 文化在语言学研究中的地位。

　5) 文化在语言课堂教学中的作。

　6. 语言与社会的关系和社会语言学。

　本章教学目的及要求 : 本章重点教授语言和文化、社会的关系，使学生对语言现象以及 附带的社会、文化内涵产生兴趣，并了解一些相关的理论。

　本章教学重点及难点 :

　1. 萨皮尔 - 沃夫假说、文化在语言课堂教学中的作用、社会语言学的 定义和研究范围、社会语言学的应用。

　2. 萨皮尔 - 沃夫假说、文化在语言课堂中的作用及社会语言学的概 念。

　第八章 语言使用 本章主要教学内容 : 1. 言语行为理论。

　2. 会话含义理论。

　3. 其他理论。

　本章教学目的及要求 : 本章重点讲授语用学的概念和著名的语用学理论、 原则和研究成果。

　要求学生对这些理论、 原则有初步的了解， 并能用来解释一些生活中 语言现象。

　本章教学重点及难点 : 1. 谚语行为理论、言内行为、言外行为、言后行为、合作原则、会 话含义。

　2. 言语行为理论、违反合作原则所产生的会话含义。本章的第三部 分作为补充材料供学生课外阅读。

　第十一章 语言学与语言教学 本章主要教学内容 : 1. 语言学和外语教学的关系。

　 2 ．不同的观点、理论对外语教学的影响。

　3 ．大纲的制订。

　4. 语言学习。

　5. 错误分析。

　6. 测试。

　本章教学目的及要求 : 本章的中心内容是语言学和外语教学的关系，介绍了影响外语教 学的几种语言学理论和实践教学活动中常见的问题及对应策略， 要求 学生了解基本理论、掌握分析、测试的基本方法。建议师范类本科学 生此章作为必修。

　本章教学重点及难点 : 1. 各种语言学理论在语言教学中的指导作用、交际能力理论、教学 大纲的制定、 语言学习中的输入和中介语的产生、 错误分析的步骤和 方法、两种不同的测试方法、测试类型和要求、测试内容和形式。

　2. 结构主义语言学在语言教学中的作用、转换生成语言学的理论观 点、功能语言学在语言教学中的应用。

　 Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics 1. Definition of language of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Disign features: Definition: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 2.1 Arbitrariness Definition: There is no logical connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary a. onomatopoetic words(rumble, bang, crash) compound words (photocopy) b. at the syntactic level, there is a certain degree of correspondencebetween the sequence ofclausesand the real happening. For example, He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after he came in. c. convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning Language is a sy

　 is a matter of convention

　Definition: Duality means the properties of having the levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization • The term II human is meant to specify that language is human-specific • Discuss the saying ——Language is humspecific II .In other words, what makes language different from animals ‘ system of communication ・

　For example, the bears ‘ dancing ・ ・ • Language is a system , which consists of 2 sets of structures ・

　At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaninglessby themselves .But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a larger number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. • Sounds f

　words f

　phrases f

　sentences • The lowest level consistsof dozens of bits of meaningless sounds which occur in chumps that we call syllables. 2.2 Duality

　 2.3 Creativity (Productivity) Definition: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. • The three-legged white monkey slept on the bed of the king of France ・ ・ • Gibbon callsa limited repertoire • Bee dancingonly to indicate food sources 2.4 Displacement Definition: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. • Human languagesenable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication. • Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places 2.5 Cultural Transmission Definition: Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker. 2.6 Interchangeability

　 Definition: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language "Informative function This function is the major role of language ・ ・ — Languag^ervesfor the expressionof context: that is, of the speaker ‘ s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousess II (Halliday) 2) lnterpersonal function This is the social use of language Through language people establish and maintain their status in a societ y. — Languageservesto establish and maintain social rules, which include the communication roles created by language itself II (Halliday) The interpersonal function of language is the function of expressing identit y. 3) Performative function(What do we do when using language) Language is used to do things This performative function of language is to change the social status of persons. For example, in marriage ceremony, the sentencing of criminals, the naming of a ship

　 4) Emotive function Language is used to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. For example: ejaculations such as II Good heavens II ; — my God II ; II I ‘ m extremely sorry about it II It is used to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something ・ ・ It can be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others 5) Phatic communion It refers to the social interaction of language. When language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas, it fulfills the phatic function. For example: farewells, comments on the weather, greetings Malinowski( 马林诺夫斯基 ) ) 一 the social interaction of language .It is to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Eg. Ritual exchanges about health and weather 6) Recreational function The use of language is for the sheer joy of using it. Eg Verbal dueling Poetry writing

　 1. Linguistics 1.1 Definition 1.2 Major branches of linguistics 1.3 Macrolinguistics 1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.1 Definition Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the following questions: What is language? How does language work? Explanation: ——Scientific II means that it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. ― Study I means investigation. ― Language I means languages in general, that is, linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 1.2 Major branches of linguistics 1.2.1 Phonetics Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produdced, transmitted, and perceived. It includes three parts: Articulatory phonetics Acoustic phonetics

　 Auditory phonetics 1.2.2 Phonology Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Phoneme is the departing point of the phonological study. It is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. For example, pin, bin, tin, din -- /p, b, t, d/ are phonemes which can distinguish meanings of these words. Then what is the relation between phonetics and phonology? Think about this question and we will discuss it in Chapter 2. 1.2.3 Morphology Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a language. 1.2.4 Syntax Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways words are combined into sentences in a language. Words are organized into structures more than just word order, e.g., A. The children watched [the firework from the hill]. B. The children watched [the firework] [from the hill]. 1.2.5 Semantics

　 Semantics is the study of meaning ・ ・ It studies the meanings of linguistic units without concerning the influence of the context of situation, i .e., it studies the de-contextualized meaning. 1.2.6 Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. (Then what is the difference between semantics and pragmatics?) Pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured 1.3 Macrolinguistics -an interdisciplinary nature It concerns with the relation between language and other disciplines which are also preoccupied with language, for example, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, computational linguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, etc. 1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.4.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Examples: 1. a) It is I. b) It is me. 2. a) Who did you speak to?

　 b) Whom did you speak to? 3. a) I haven ‘ t dcykhiag ・ ・ b) I haven ‘ t done nothing Descriptive —The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use ・ ・ Prescriptive -the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for — correct and standard II behnavsong language, i ・ e ・

　to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. Descriptive explanations of the three examples: 1) The Latin rule is not universal ・

　In English, — mell and — I II is felt to be very formal. 2) — Whor l is used in formal speech and in writing, and is more acceptable in informal speech ・ ・ 3) Language dose not have to follow logical reasoning ・

　Here two negatives in 3b) only make a more emphatic negative ・

　This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical but because language changes and rejects this usage now ・ ・ To sum up: is inform ——wh

　 Prescriptive: Do/Don ‘ t say X. Descriptive: People do/don ‘ t say X.

　 If a descriptive grammar of a non-prestige variety of English were written, it might show, for example, that speakers of this variety said: I seen " im. for I saw him. " im " n me donefor He and I did it. 1.4.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic Swiss linguist Ferdinand de SaussurC©urse in General Linguistics, 191 負 一 SYNCHRONIC, in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time, and — DIACHRONIC , in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time are treated historically (Robins, 1967: 200). Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study (Shakespeare ‘ s English) The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (a historical study^the historical development of language over a period of time). Time 1 Description of the sound Synchronic

　system of Early English study description of changes diachronic

　between the two systems study

　 Time 2 Description of the sound Synchronic

　system of Modern English study 1.4.3 Langue & Parole

　Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole ・

　Langue is not complete in any individual speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity In separating langue from parole we are at the same time separating 1) what is social from what is individual; and 2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental. Which one should linguists study? Langue or Parole? Langue T) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by; 2) abstract, not the language people actually use; 3) relatively stable, does not change frequentl y. Parole T) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; 2) concrete, the naturally occurring language events; 3) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 1.4.4 Competence vs. performance

　 American linguist Noam Chomsky Aspects of the Theory of Syntax ，佃

　65) Competence -the ideal user underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language Performance -the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situation Chomsky points out that the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user. Chomsky ‘

　s distinction of competence and performance is related to the langue-parole distinction of Saussure, but there are some differences between them, what are they? What is the difference between Saussure and Chomsky? Saussure-a sociological view of language (Langue is a matter of social conventions ・ ) Chomsky -a psychological view (Competence is a property of the mind of each individual ・ ) Which one should be studied? Langue or Parole? Competence or Performance? Arguments:

　competence and performance in normal language users ・

　There are many reasons discrepancy between

　 Some

　 of them are ethnic background, socioeconomic status, and regions of the country; some are the factors as physical state changes within the individual, intoxication, fatigue, distraction, and illness ・

　So there have been some arguments on Chomsky thinking that ——Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly ||. Dell Hymes studies language from a socio-cultural viewpoint and proposed — communicative competenc — speakers vary their performance not at random but in a regular way (the pragmatic ability of language use). Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Phonetics Phonology I. Phonetics 1.1 Definition Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived; it is concerned with the sounds that occur in the world ‘ s languages 1.2 Three Areas of Phonetics

　 1. Articulatory phonetics — the study of the production of speech sounds 2. Acoustic phonetics — the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech sounds 3. Auditory phonetics — the study of the perception of speech sounds. 1.3 Speech organs (vocal organs) 1. speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. 2. They are contained in three areas: 1) the pharyngeal cavity — the throat 2) the oral cavity — the mouth 3) the nasal cavity — the nose 3. The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. 1.31 The pharyngeal cavity 1. Air stream from the lungi windpipe f

　glottis 2. Vocal cords are two tissues. When they are folded back, air passesfreely and silently; when they held together, air vibrates them at different speedswhen forcing its passage through them; when they are totally closed, no air can pass through them and then release the air stream

　 suddenly. 1.32 The oral cavity 1. The oral cavity contains the uvula, the soft palate(the velum),the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lips, and the tongue. 2. In phonetics,the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip ,the blade, the front, the back and the root. 3. In phonology,the sounds made with these parts of the tongue are often referred to as Coronal, Dorsal and Radical. 1.4Classification of English Speech Sounds 1.41 Vowels Vowels are produced when the air stream meets with no obstruction. 1.42 Consonants Consonants are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream, that is, whether there is a ― stricture production of the sound. 1.43Classification of consonants 1. The production of consonants at least involves two articulators. 2. Two ways of classification: 1) Manner of articulation: the relationship between the articulators and the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.

　 3. Three major manners of articulation: a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; b) they may narrow the space considerably; c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. 2) Places of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. 背书 P35 并熟悉下面出题方式。

　1.44Vowels 1.44.1 Cardinal vowels 1. The cardinal vowels were invented by Daniel Jones, describing the vowels in any language. The cardinal vowels themselvesdo not belong to any particular language, but are to be used as a reference pointy 照点 ) The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts and not belong to any language. Definition: are a set of vowel qualities arbitrary defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages P28 书 2. Schwa: the neutral vowel 3. The 16 cardinal vowels are sub-divided into 8 primary and 8

　 secondary cardinal vowels ・

　In the diagram, whenever there is a pair of symbolstogether, the soundsonly differ with respect to lip posture, with the left symbol being unrounded and the right symbol being rounded ・ ・ 4. The cardinal vowels are abstract concept. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space would involve friction or contact (consonants) 5. Semi-vowels:Theoretically,anysegment must be either a vowel or a consonant; but there are some problems with[h][j][w] Monophthong vowels: the quality of vowels remains constant throughout the articulation Vowel Glides: the quality of vowels has an audible change Vowel Glides are further divided into -diphthongsll If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called Diphthongs and the trip—thongs II , if there is — a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption II 1.45 The English Vowels 1. The four basic requirement for the description of English vowels: The height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) The position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) The length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs lax) Lip-rounding (rounded vs unrounded)

　 2. Diacritics: are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation ・ ・ 背 P36 书上图 II . From Phonetics to Phonology 2.1 Coarticulation Definition: When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation ・ ・ Anticipatory Coarticulation: a sound becomes more like the following sound ・

　Eg: lamb Perseverative Coarticulation: the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound Eg: map 2.2 Phonetic Transcriptions: Broad transcription---the transcription with letters and symbols onl y. Narrow transcription---the transcription with letters and symbols together with the diacritics 2.3 Phonemes 2.3.1 Phonology and Phonetics 1. Both of them are concerned with the same aspect of language— the

　 speech sounds. 2. Phoneticsis of a general nature;it is interestedin all the speech sounds used in all human languages 3. Definition: Phonology is the study of the sound patters and sound systems of languages .It aims to — discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur II 4. Phonetics is concerned with all the speech used in all human languages. 2.3.2 Phone Phoneme Allophone 1. Phone : A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 2. Phoneme: A phoneme is a phonologicalunit which is the

　 smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. 1) The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English is consideredto have 44 phonemes,24consonants and 20 vowels ・ ・ 2) A phoneme is an abstract unit which is of distinctive value ・

　It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context ・ ・ the difference phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme ・ ・ 2.3.3 Minimal pairs and complementary distribution 1. A minimal pair contains two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. Eg: pill, bill, till, kill. 2. Allophones of a phoneme always occur in different phonetic environment ,so they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is , they never occur in the same context. 3. The criteria for judging whether some phones are allophones of a phoneme or not: 1) they must be phonetically similar 2) they must be in complementary distribution 2.3.4 Free variation When two or more linguistic items occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning they are in free variation ・ ・

　 The differences may be causedby style or dialect, habit, or individual preference instead of by any distribution rule. 2.4 Phonological Processes 2.4.1 Assimilation 1. Definition: Assimilation is a processby which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound 2. The differences between assimilation and coarticulation: Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation Coarticulation is a phonetic term. 3. Two kinds of assimilation: "regressive assimilation---a following sound influencing a preceding sound 2) progressive assimilation---a preceding sound influences a following sound. 4. Three aspects to phonological processes Phonological processesexhibit that a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts 1) a set of sounds to undergo the process 2) a set of sounds produced by the process 3) a set of situations in which the process applies III Suprasegmental features Definition: units which extend over more than one sound in an utterance.

　 The main suprasegmental features are stress , tone, intonation 3.1 Syllables 3.1. “Syllable structures 1. Monosyllabic--- one word with one syllable 2. Polysyllabic—one word with more than one syllable 3. A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus , a noncompulsory onset and a noncompulsory coda. 4. Open syllable is a syllable that has no coda Closed syllable is a syllable with coda 3.1.2 Syllabification-dividing a word up into syllables 1. The syllabification of words is determined by the maximal onset principle(MOP), which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant,it is put into the onset rather than the coda. 3.2 Stress 1. Definition: The degree of force used in producing a syllable. 2. There are two kinds of stress, word stress and sentence stress. 3.2.1 word stress 1. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning ・

　For example, a shift of stressmay change the part of speechof a word from a noun to a verb ・ ・ 2. Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound and a

　 free phrase ・ ・ 3. See also the combination ofing forms and nouns 1) The stress is on the first element to show that is the modifier of the noun ・

　Eg. Dining-room, sewing machine, reading glasses 2) The stress is on the second element to show that the noun is the doer of the action indicated by the f ng for. Eg: sleeping body swimming fish 3.3 Intonation 1. Definition: Intonation involves the occurrenceof recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. 2. The falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward statement and it is some times leads to rudeness and abruptness. 3. The rising tone often makes a question of what is said and

　 shows politeness or surprise. 4. The fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied-message in what is said. 3.3 Tone Definition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal words ・ ・ Chapter 3 Lexicon 3.1 What is word? 1. According to Leonard Bloomfield posit of view: A word is a minimum free form, or the smallest form that may appear in isolation ・ ・ 2. Modern Linguistics: A word is the smallest of the linguistic unit which can occur on its own in speech or writing. This criterion is difficult to be applied consistentl y. For

　 example, can the occur on its own? Isa? " t one word or two? 3.1. IFour senses of ?word Word T) form pronunciation spelling 2) meaning

　 3) function 1) a minimal free form of a language A word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper between two blanks ・ ・ 2) a sound unity A word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds between two pauses ・ ・ 3) a unit of meaning 4) a form that can function alone in a sentence The hierarchical rank scale of the grammar: Sentence clause Phrase word morpheme Definition : A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function ・ ・ Question: Are words the smallest meaningful units? 3.1.2 Sound and meaning

　 A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world ・

　Then can we say that the connection between the word and the thing it refers to is intrinsic? No. The connection is almost always ?arbitrary ‘ , which means that there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. A dogis called a dog not because the sound ant the three letters that make up the word just suggest the animal. 3.1.3 word and lexeme Lexeme -the smallest unit in the meaning system (lexical item) of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller unit. 可以从其它类似单位中区别出来的最小语义单位。

　Lexeme is an abstract unit .It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. (cf. P. 56) 3.1.4 Characteristics of word 1) stability Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure. Chairman *manchair 2) relative uninterruptibility

　 New elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word ・ ・ 3) a minimum free form A word is the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. This view was first proposed by Bloomfield, but it was questioned by some linguists. (P. 58) 3.1.5 Classification of word According to the variability, meaning, and finiteness, words can be classified as follows: 1) variable and invariable words (variability) Variable words are words which undergo ordered and regular series of grammatical difference while at the same time part of the word remaining relatively constant. (cf. p. 58) Invariable words refer to those words which do not have inflective endings. 2) lexical/content and grammatical/function words (meaning) Content words are words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which have meaning (lexical meaning) when the words are used alone. They are usually nouns, main verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

　 Function words are words which have little meaning on their own, but which show grammatical relationships in and between sentences (grammatical meaning). They are usually articles, conjunctions, prepositions, etc ・ ・ 3) Open-class and closed-class words (finiteness) The open-class refers to a group of words which contains an unlimited number of items ・

　It is just like the content words ・

　Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited ・

　New members are not regularly added ・

　It is just like the function words ・

　But sometimes it is hard to define it. (cf. p. 59) 3.1.6 New categories 1) particles -infinitive marker ?to ‘ , the negative markenSt ‘ , and the subordinate units in phrsal verbs, such as ?gby ‘ , ?do up ‘ , Slocback ‘ , etc. 2) auxiliaries Auxiliaries include modal auxiliaries and link verbs which have unique properties of their own and which differ from the ordinary verbs ・ ・ Cf examples on P. 60. 3) pro-form It refers to items which substitute for other items or constructions in a

　 sentence.

　 Pro-locative 4) determiners It refers to those words which are used before the noun (including its pre-modifiers like adjectives) acting as head of a nominal group, and which determine the kind of reference the nominal group has. For example, A) articles: a, an, the B) demonstratives: this, that C) possessives: her my D) quantifiers: some, many E) numerals: first, three Three sub-classes according to Quirk: a) pred...